ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS "THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM"

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM PART ONE

DIAGRAM OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

It is often said that it is the Pituitary Gland that controls the Endocrine system however this is not strictly true although it plays a big part in it. It is the area of the brain known as the Hypothalamus that maintains homeostasis (balance) within the body and one of its functions is to regulate the pituitary gland. You can see from the diagram above the Endocrine system organs which are known as ductless glands meaning their hormones (chemical messengers) are excreted directly into the blood and not through a duct. 

As the Hypothalamus is trying to maintain balance within the body it is constantly check our blood analysing what's needed to help it function at its best so if it detects a fall in certain hormones it will send a message to the pituitary gland say and that pituitary gland will send a hormone to its target organ for example Thyroid Stimulating Hormone that is then excreted into the blood stream to target the Thyroid gland to produce Thyroxine, the Hypothalamus will be constantly checking levels of Thyroxine in the blood and when the levels are correct, it will send a message to the pituitary gland to stop secreting Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and if the levels drop again the same thing happens all over again. This is known as a 'Feedback System' and that is basically how our hormone levels are maintained.

Obviously the subject matter of the Endocrine system is vast and I am only giving the basics and keeping it simple but one thing that affects us all is stress and the endocrine system really is worked.

CORTISOL OFTEN KNOWN AS THE 'STRESS HORMONE' 

Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced within the adrenal cortex in the adrenal glands, these are cone shaped organs sitting on top of the kidneys. It's a very important hormone and responsible for proper glucose metabolism, helping regulate blood pressure, has a part to play in insulin and blood sugar levels and is part of the inflammatory response. It's often known as the stress hormone but as you can see that's only part of its functions, and this is because it's secreted in higher levels as part of the 'Fight or Flight response'. When secreted in short bursts its beneficial to the body as due to it's actions, it helps mobilise energy reserves, heightens memory and lowers response to pain. This is how and why it's beneficial in the 'Fight and Flight response', it acts quickly and helps survival, however today's stresses are not the same as yesteryear and therein lies the problem.

When there is prolonged secretion of this hormone, when stress is on going, it causes blood sugar imbalances, affects bone density, causing it to decrease and also causes a decrease in muscle tissue. It raises blood pressure affects the body's immune system making us more susceptible to infection and leads to poor healing. It also causes shifts in body fat by increasing more fat around the abdominal areas and leads to higher levels of cholesterol.

The Hypothalamus & the Relationship to the Endocrine System in ‘Stress’

Below the flow chart illustrates how our minds' emotions and feelings trigger a reaction in the Hypothalamus to instigate what happens in the 'Fight or Flight' response. The Hypothalamus then in turn influences both the Autonomic Nervous System and the Endocrine system. This is fine short term it helps us cope in dangerous scenarios and was designed as a protective response, however the stresses of today are not those of yesteryear. No harm comes to our bodies in the short term, this is not the case in long term stress. All is not lost for there are ways we can influence the Hypothalamus to prevent the long term damaging effects of stress on our health. I shall be exploring this under Holistic Therapies. 

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

SIMPLE ANATOMY THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Since I am keeping this simple I won't go into much detail of how it is an area of our brain that controls respiration but it is suffice to know that when the diaphragm contracts (it is a large muscle that separates our chest from our abdomen) it increases the volume in our chest cavity. At the same time the little intercostal muscles between our ribs contract and lift up the rib cage. Because the air pressures are different and due to various natural scientific laws this draws in more air into our lungs and due to certain receptor nerve cells they send a signal back to our brain instigating the opposite, diaphragm relaxes and we breathe out carbon dioxide. It is the Alveoli (see diagram above) where the interchange of gases takes place into and out of the blood stream for surrounding these tiny little balloon structures are tiny blood vessels known as capillaries, these are merely one cell thick to facilitate the body's waste carbon dioxide to pass into the alveoli and the oxygen in the air in the alveoli to pass into the blood stream.

This happens continuously throughout our lives automatically the average healthy adult 12 to 18 respirations per minute. It's important to remember that each system of the body is dependent on the others to function as they all interact with one another eg. The brain stem controls respiration and respiration is vital to bring oxygen to the body's cells and remove waste and its specialised nerve receptor cells within the aorta that lets the brain know when to evoke inhalation.

You can also see in the diagram the left lung is slightly smaller than the right this is to allow for the heart. As we breathe in through our nose the air is moistened and the whole of the respiratory tract is covered in little hairs 'Cilia' these trap debris and help waft up mucus from the lungs. The Uvula is a fleshy piece of tissue that stops food going into our Trachea (wind pipe) and the trachea leads to the Bronchus which divides into two Bronchi eventually getting smaller and smaller to becoming Bronchioles to which are attached the Alveoli.

Incidentally smoking paralyses these little Cilia rendering them unable to function and they are not able to move the mucous up out of the lungs, this is what leads to the classic smokers' cough.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

SIMPLE ANATOMY URINARY SYSTEM

The Urinary system's function consists of two kidneys two ureters leading down to the bladder and the urethra leading to the external body. The function of the kidneys is to filter the blood through tiny specialised structures known as nephrons. These are very delicate structures than can be damaged through continuous high blood pressure. The kidneys regulate electrolytes (salts) within the body and remove waste such as urea, they also help regulate blood pressure. They excrete this waste as urine. Incidentally urine is sterile until it leaves the body when bacteria acts upon it. The urine then passes down the ureters to the bladder where it is stored until its convent to be emptied. They are placed at the rear of the abdominal cavity and are protected by an area of fat just below the waist.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

BASIC HUMAN ANATOMY PLACEMENT OF MAJOR ORGANS

Placement of the major organs and structures following on from the last two articles on here.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

SIMPLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion as I mentioned previously begins in the mouth, food is chewed up assisted by the teeth and tongue and mixed with saliva. Saliva helps moisten the food and helps us swallow it, but the enzymes within Saliva, amylase and pytalin break down carbohydrates, which are complex sugars into disaccharides.  This chewed up food is now known as a bolus and is pushed down the oesophagus by the tongue. The oesophagus is a hollow muscular tube commonly known as the gullet. that leads to the stomach. The stomach is a muscular hollow organ that produces hydrochloric acid, to help break down food further and kill bacteria, it also produces Pepsin an enzyme to break down proteins. The stomach's muscular action churns up the food and it is now known as chyme as it passes into the first stage of the small intestine, the Duodenum, it is in the small intestine where the vast majority of digestion takes place.

The accessory digestive organs the pancreas and the liver now assist the process of digestion. The liver produces Bile, this is released and stored in the gallbladder and it is from there it is released into the duodenum its function is to emulsify fats and acts as a deodourant and gives faeces their brown colour. At the same time the pancreas produces digestive enzymes to further break down carbohydrates into simple sugars monosaccharides (amylase, lactase, sucrase) and (trypsin and chymotrypsin) break down proteins into polypeptides. Lipase breaks the fats down into fatty acids. 

As the broken down food continues along the small intestine the lining is covered in small projections known as Villi, these increase the absorbent area and the nutrients from the food are absorbed through those into the blood stream. Obviously its a lot more complex than this as I'm trying to keep this simple. 

The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the faeces and any remaining nutrients and the end result faeces is stored in the rectum until voided.

The Liver does have a very important role in the body besides manufacturing Bile as does the Pancreas and that will be explained in another blog.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

ANATOMY FOR BEGINNERS (AS A SURVEY REVEALS HALF OF UK POPULATION ARE IGNORANT) BEGINNING WITH THE MOUTH

I saw this in the Daily Mail (below) and I can't believe how ignorant some people can be about their bodies so I thought I had better enlighten them.

Starting with the mouth and keeping this relatively simple.

Beginning with the teeth a full grown adult has 32 teeth, though some people are born without the 4 third molars commonly known as wisdom teeth, they usually erupt around ages 14/15. We also have 20 milk teeth (our first deciduous teeth) which we begin to lose around ages 5 to 6 and are gradually replaced by our permanent teeth.

Diagram of the mouth, digestion begins within the mouth where food is chewed (masticated) and the action of salivary amylase and pytalin (enzymes that break down carbohydrates)

Tonsils are part of our immune system (lymphoid tissue) to help protect us from infection. The tongue as well has helping us to speak aids digestion by helping us move and chew food and is divided up into areas that help us detect flavours such as sweet, salty, sour and bitter.

Article from the Daily Mail below

Half of Britons are so clueless about their own bodies they are unable to point out where their HEART is

More than half of Britons are so clueless about their bodies that they cannot pinpoint the correct location of their heart, it emerged today.

Not only that, but we do not know how much blood we have, how many teeth are in our mouths or what roles our vital organs perform.

Many of the 2,000 respondents questioned by researchers were unable to say what our correct body temperature should be, while nearly 10 per cent were unsure of the number of kidneys we have.

There it is: Half of Britons are so clueless about their bodies that they cannot pinpoint the correct location of their heart, according to a study

Additionally, the study found 60 per cent could not name their own blood type.

The research was commissioned by the Museum Of London to mark the launch of its October exhibition Doctors, Dissection And Resurrection Men.

Jelena Bekvalac, Curator of Human Osteology at the museum, said: 'It seems we have a depressing lack of anatomical awareness.

'Perhaps we have a tendency to rely on medical authorities to do all they can for us without really understanding the way that we work.

'We are reassured by expertise and don’t take the time to understand the basics of how our own bodies function or are structured.

'The Museum of London’s new exhibition, Doctors, Dissection And Resurrection Men explores the extreme lengths 19th century medical pioneers went to to increase anatomical understanding.

'Surgeons faced a torturous dilemma - learn their skills on stolen corpses or practice on a living patient.

'And so began a gruesome trade. Body-snatchers stalked the city’s graveyards to supply fresh corpses for medical dissection.

OUR LACK OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT OUR OWN BODIES

• 50% don't know where their heart is (centre-left of the chest)
• 75% don't know how many bones are in an adult body (206)
• Just under 50% don't know how many teeth we have (32)
• 40% don't know where their kidneys are
• Just under 10% don't know how many kidneys we have
• More than 50% don't know where their gall bladder is
• 60% of Britons don’t know their own blood type
• 66% did not know that the average adult has between five and six litres of blood
• 18% think a visor was a type of tooth (it's a surface that protects the eyes)
• 75% do not know that the liver is our biggest internal organ
• 40% think a single lung is of a greater size

'It is therefore sobering to consider our less than exemplary knowledge of basic biology.'

The study found just half of those polled could correctly identify the heart’s location in the left-centre of the chest.

And three-quarters were stumped when it came to guessing how many bones are in the adult human body. There are 206.

Nearly half were unsure as to how many teeth we have - 32 - while 40 per cent haven’t a clue where their kidney is located.

More than half couldn’t tell you where their gall bladder can be found and one in thirteen people didn’t know how many kidneys we have.

Worryingly, six in ten Britons didn’t know their own blood type.

A third of people could correctly state that the average adult has between five and six litres of blood.

Nearly a fifth of Brits, 18 per cent, thought a visor was a type of tooth.

Three-quarters of the respondents did not know that the liver is our biggest internal organ, with four in ten thinking a single lung was of greater size.

And nearly half the study couldn’t get anywhere near to guessing the healthy temperature of the human body, 37C.

Jelena Bekvalac said: 'Doctors, Dissection And Resurrection Men will provide a fascinating insight into a crucial period in our medical and social history.

'It may also help those who are a little confused by their own anatomy.'

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

POPEYE FIGHTS OFF DEMENTIA

Well I've always known the importance of green vegetables in the diet Spinach being one of those and here we see how it's valuable in fighting off dementia. Recently I wrote how Marmite is good at fighting dementia because of Vitamin B complex, Vit B12 injections are given in the early stages of dementia to help delay it, so I believe we should be armed with as much information as possible to help delay this condition.

Article from the Daily Mail below.

It's the news Popeye's been waiting for: Spinach could help fight off dementia (and carrots and apricots too)

• Researchers have discovered a link between low vitamin C, beta-carotene levels and dementia
• Antioxidant rich fruit and vegetables - such as spinach, carrots and apricots - could help fight dementia

It's welcome news for Popeye.

Spinach could help beat help beat dementia, according to a study.

Researchers have discovered a link between low vitamin C, beta-carotene levels and dementia.

So antioxidant rich fruit and vegetables - such as spinach, carrots and apricots - could help fight the disease’s devastating symptoms, their findings suggest.

Music to Popeye's ears: Antioxidant-rich fruit and vegetables - including spinach - could help fight the dementia symptoms

German scientists from the University of Ulm looked at the differences between 74 people with mild Alzheimer’s disease and 158 healthy subjects.

The participants, aged between 65 and 90, underwent neuropsychological testing, answered questions about their lifestyle and had their blood examined and their body mass index calculated.

The team, led by epidemiologist Professor Gabriele Nagel and neurologist Professor Christine von Arnim, found the serum-concentration of the antioxidants vitamin C and beta-carotene were significantly lower in patients with mild dementia than in control group.

There was no such difference between the groups in levels of other antioxidants including vitamin E, lycopene, coenzyme Q10.

Dr Nagel said although more studies were needed to confirm the results, the findings suggested fruits and vegetables could play a role in fighting the disease.

'Longitudinal studies with more participants are necessary to confirm the result that vitamin C and beta-carotene might prevent the onset and development of Alzheimer’s disease,' he said.

'Vitamin C can for example be found in citrus fruits; beta-carotene in carrots, spinach or apricots.'

Beneficial: Apricots and carrots could also prove beneficial in the fight against dementia

Alzheimer’s disease symptoms including forgetfulness, lack of orientation and cognitive decline and are caused by alterations in the brain including amyloid-beta-plaques, degeneration of fibrillae and a loss of synapses.

However, oxidative stress, which constrains the exploitation of oxygen in the human body, is also suspected to promote the development of the disease.

This led scientists to investigate whether antioxidants might protect against neurodegeneration.

The study - supported by the German Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts of Baden-W|rttemberg and the European Union - was published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

THE BENEFITS OF GREEN TEA

This is an interesting piece of research I came across in the Daily Mail about Green Tea, not surprising given that tea is rich in Flavonoids, antioxidants so fight 'Free Radicals'.

Green tea isn't just good for your heart, it's good for your brain too

• Study found that chemical properties of green tea promotes the generation of brain cells

The green tea chemical ECGC was found to boost the generation of brain cells in mice, which seemed to improve memory and learning in mice

Sipping green tea is not just good for you heart - it could boost the memory as well, say researchers.

A study from China found that the chemical properties of the healthy beverage promotes the generation of brain cells, providing benefits for memory and spatial learning.
Study leader Professor Yun Bai from the Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China, said: 'There has been plenty of scientific attention on its use in helping prevent cardiovascular diseases, but now there is emerging evidence that its chemical properties may impact cellular mechanisms in the brain.'
Professor Bai's team focused on the organic chemical EGCG that is found in green tea.
'We proposed that EGCG can improve cognitive function by impacting the generation of neuron cells, a process known as neurogenesis,' said Prof Bai.
'We focused our research on the hippocampus, the part of the brain which processes information from short-term to long-term memory.'
The team found that ECGC boosts the production of neural progenitor cells, which like stem cells can adapt into various types of cells. The team then used laboratory mice to discover if this increased cell production gave an advantage to memory or spatial learning.


'We ran tests on two groups of mice, one which had imbibed ECGC and a control group,' said Prof Bai.
'First the mice were trained for three days to find a visible platform in their maze. Then they were trained for seven days to find a hidden platform.'
The team found that the ECGC treated mice required less time to find the hidden platform. Overall the results revealed that EGCG enhances learning and memory by improving object recognition and spatial memory.
'We have shown that the organic chemical EGCG acts directly to increase the production of neural progenitor cells, both in glass tests and in mice,' concluded Prof Bai.
'This helps us to understand the potential for EGCG, and green tea which contains it, to help combat degenerative diseases and memory loss.'
The research is published in Molecular Nutrition & Food Research.

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories

ANOTHER GOOD REASON TO EAT CHOCOLATE

Just to add to the other articles on the benefits to eating chocolate. Previously the benefits were attributed to eating dark chocolate, but it seems there are also benefits to eating milk as well. But lets face it folks any excuse to eat chocolate is a good one as far as I am concerned! Seriously the benefits are from Flavonoids those great antioxidants.

Links to other articles on benefits of Chocolate

Astridestella.info: JUST WHAT WE LOVE TO HEAR---CHOCOLATE ...

14 Aug 2012

The drink contained flavanols – chemicals associated with a decreased dementia risk which are found in a variety of foods, including cocoa products such as dark chocolate. The participants' diet was restricted to eliminate ...

http://www.astridestella.info/

Astridestella.info: SOME GOOD NEWS!

14 Aug 2012

It may taste good but some research shows that washing your chocolate down with a glass of milk could prevent the antioxidants being absorbed or used by your body. Sources: Chocolate Manufacturers Association; Journal ...

http://www.astridestella.info/

Article from the Daily Mail below

Chocolate may protect the brain from stroke (and this time it's the milk variety)

• Most men in the study consumed milk chocolate, which has more sugar and fat than the dark variety
• Scientists believe protective effect comes from antioxidants called flavonoids

For every 50g per week increase in chocolate consumption, stroke risk decreased by about 14 per cent

Eating chocolate may reduce the long term risk of stroke, research has shown.
Men who consumed moderate amounts of chocolate each week were less likely to suffer a stroke over a period of 10 years than those who ate none.
The difference was small, but significant. Study participants who ate the most chocolate, equivalent to about one third of a cup of chocolate chips, reduced their stroke risk by 17 per cent. A total of 37,103 Swedish men aged 49 to 75 took part in the study.
Their diets were assessed with food questionnaires, which asked how often they ate chocolate. The men's progress was then followed for 10 years, during which researchers recorded 1,995 cases of a first stroke.
Previous studies have shown that chocolate may help prevent diabetes, control blood pressure, and protect against heart disease. Healthy antioxidant plant chemicals called flavonoids are thought to explain the health benefits.

Dr Susanna Larsson, from the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, who led the latest research, reported in the journal Neurology, said: 'The beneficial effect of chocolate consumption on stroke may be related to the flavonoids in chocolate.
'Flavonoids appear to be protective against cardiovascular disease through antioxidant, anti-clotting and anti-inflammatory properties. It's also possible that flavonoids in chocolate may decrease blood concentrations of bad cholesterol and reduce blood pressure.


'Interestingly, dark chocolate has previously been associated with heart health benefits, but about 90 per cent of the chocolate intake in Sweden, including what was consumed in our study, is milk chocolate.'
The men who ate the largest quantities consumed a modest 63g of chocolate per week. This is about a third of a cup-full of chocolate chips, or just a little more than a Mars bar which weighs 58 grams.
Put into context, the 17 per cent risk reduction amounted to 12 fewer strokes per 10,000 participants over 10 years, or 100,000 "person years".
The research was followed up by a larger analysis of data from five studies in Europe and the US that included 4,260 stroke cases. This showed that people eating the most chocolate were 19 per cent less likely to have a stroke than those consuming the least.
For every increase in chocolate consumption of about 50 grams per week, stroke risk decreased by about 14 per cent.
In their paper, the scientists said further studies were needed before any recommendations could be given about chocolate consumption. They added: 'Because chocolate is high in sugar, saturated fat, and calories, it should be consumed in moderation.'

Maggie Brown (Author)

Visit Amazon's Maggie Brown Page

Find all the books, read about the author, and more.

Top Stories